CMF Ch 6

 CMF Chapter 6

 Television and Cable: The Power of Visual Culture



Group 1


The Origins and Development of Television

 -There were 3 different developments in TV’s early history that helped make it what it is today:

1. The first development was the new technological innovations and also the patent wars that were taking place 2. The second development was the gaining of control over content from other advertisers.

3. The final development was the sociocultural impact of quiz-shows and the scandals that were taking place because of them.

 

    A.    Early Innovation in TV Technology

-The thought of TV originated from the radio.

-With the invention of the Cathode Ray Tube, TV was able to start running it’s course. The Cathode Ray Tube was able to help combine the concepts of the camera and electricity together.

-In order to get visual pictures on to the screen, a scanning disk was created to help. A German man by the name of Paul Nipkow was the inventor of this creation. 

 B.     Electronic Technology: Zworykin and Farnsworth

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<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:.75in;mso-add-space: auto">       -Now that the TV has been created, there were constant battles over the patents that went       along with this new invention and the new things that were being created to make it better.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space: auto">-There were 2 men by the names of Vladimir Zworykin and Philo Farnsworth who were at constant battle with one another over the patents.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space: auto">-Vladimir Zworykin was an inventor who invented the iconoscope. The Iconoscope was a camera tube that helped with the conversion of light rays into electrical signals. This was the first of its kind.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space: auto">-In 1928, Zworykin had his invention patented.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space:auto">-Here is a link to watch a short video from Vladimir Zworykin about his invention. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W40OktedXik

<p class="MsoNormal">Zworykin on the invention of tv [Web]. (2011).

<p class="MsoNormal"> Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W40OktedXik

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space: auto">-Philo Farnsworth created something similar to Zworykin. He created the first ever-electronic picture on the TV.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space:auto">-In 1930, he received a patent for his invention.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space: auto;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l5level2lfo1">a. Setting Technical Standards

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space: auto">-1930: National Television System Committee (NTSC) began working and representing the major electronic firms.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space: auto;tab-stops:3.0in">-The NTSC began investigating technical standards.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space: auto;tab-stops:3.0in">-1941: Federal Communications Commission (FCC) used an analog standard. <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:2.0in;mso-add-space:auto; tab-stops:3.0in">Analog-this is a standard that the FCC used. Their waves were based off of the radio waves.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1.5in;tab-stops:3.0in">-The analog waves were used until about 2009 when they were replaced by a new type of signal called digital.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:2.0in;tab-stops:3.0in">Digital-Instead of radio waves, digital signal was compromised of    binary codes like the ones that computers are comprised of.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:94.5pt;tab-stops:1.5in3.0in">-Because of the Digital switch, TV could now be viewed in High Definition.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:94.5pt;tab-stops:1.5in3.0in">-With high definition, smart phones and other smart devices could now play television.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space: auto;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l5level2lfo1">b. Assigning Frequencies and Freezing TV Licenses

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.75in;mso-add-space: auto">-Before TV really took off, TV stations were limited on their airtime because it would interfere with other frequencies.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.75in;mso-add-space: auto">-Eventually this problem was taking care of with the installation of cable wires. The cable wires were able to send frequencies without interfering with others who were using the frequencies as well.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.75in;mso-add-space: auto">-1948: FCC had over 100 different TV licenses that were able to show TV channels.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.75in;mso-add-space: auto">-Eventually, the sales of TV outnumbered the sales of the radio.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.75in;mso-add-space: auto">-Some places like Little Rock, Arkansas did not have TV channels because the signal was not strong enough.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.75in;mso-add-space: auto">-By 1950, many places that did not have TV signal now did.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space: auto;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l5level2lfo1">c. The Introduction of Color Television

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space: auto">-1952: CBS got permission to try and use a color system to make the visual pictures in color rather than in black and white. This did not workout however because many TV sets were incompatible.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space: auto">-1954: RCA tried the color system. Theirs worked!

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space: auto">-CBS, NBC, and ABC all began to start using color around the 1960s.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:.75in;mso-add-space:auto; text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l5level1lfo1">C. Controlling Content-TV Grows Up

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space: auto;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l5level2lfo1">a. Program Format Changes Inhibit Sponsorship

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space:auto">-Sponsors were used when TV first began to help support different shows and their airtime.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1.5in">-Costs went up for sponsoring programs, which discouraged people from wanting to contribute.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space: auto;text-indent:.25in"> -Two new types of programs were being aired and combined together:

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:2.0in;mso-add-space: auto">-These were called  “Magazine Programs”. These shows are now what we would call talk shows or news shows.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:2.5in;mso-add-space:auto">EXAMPLE:  The Today Show or Good Morning America would be classified under the “Magazine Programs” (Campbell, Martin, Fabos; page 199-200).

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space: auto;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l5level2lfo1">b. The Rise and Fall of Quiz Shows

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space: auto">-The hours of 8pm to 11pm were known as Prime Time. <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space: auto">-$64,000 Question aired by CBS was a show that really helped quiz shows get their start and draw in large audiences during Prime Time. (Campbell, Martin, Fabos; page 200-201).

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space: auto">-Eventually, quiz shows died down because of controversies and accusations between contestants, the shows, and the money involved.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space: auto;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l5level2lfo1">c. Quiz-Show Scandal Hurts the Promise TV

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space: auto">-Because of the controversies and the accusations of e quiz shows being fixed, many problems arose.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.75in;mso-add-space: auto;text-indent:.25in">-The first was that many sponsor’s did not want to help out after all of the controversy because they did not want their name to have any affiliation with the drama.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.75in;mso-add-space: auto;text-indent:.25in">-The second was the many people were now let down and began to think that shows were just a fraud. People believed that the information and content were not real.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space: auto">-Even though there was a scandal and quiz shows were taken off the air, Who Wants to be a Millionaire came back in 1999 and turned out to be a big hit. (Campbell, Martin, Fabos; page 201).

<p class="MsoNormal">The Development of Cable

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.75in;mso-add-space:auto; text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l1level1lfo2">A. CATV-Community Antenna Television

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.0in;mso-add-space: auto">-CATV was the first small cable system.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.0in;mso-add-space: auto">-CATV was used to distribute 12 channels to people from any place (mountains, tall buildings, etc).

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:.75in;mso-add-space:auto; text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l1level1lfo2">B. The Wires and Satellites behind Cable Television

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1.0in">-AT&T created Telstar. Telstar was a communication satellite that helped with signals. <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1.0in">-With the new breakthrough of satellite communication, TV companies were able to create programs with better quality for their viewers.

<p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left:.75in;mso-add-space:auto; text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l1level1lfo2">C. Cable Threatens Broadcasting

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1.0in">-A small percent of Americans (14%) had cable in their homes in 1977, but it rose greatly (46%) in 1985 (Campbell, Martin, Fabos; page 202).

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1.0in"> -        The cable industries rise to the top was partially due to the failure of broadcast TV.

<p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space:auto; text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l6level1lfo7">-        Cable was able to offer better reception and services compared to broadcast TV.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.75in;mso-add-space:auto; text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l1level1lfo2">D. Cable Services

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space: auto;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l1level2lfo2">a. Basic Cable Services

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space: auto">-Examples: CNN, MTV, Nickelodeon, Disney, Weather Channel, BET, and hundreds more. (Campbell, Martin, Fabos; page 203).

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space:auto">-People have to pay for them.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space:auto"> b.      Premium Cable Services

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space: auto">-Example: HBO, Pay-Per-View (Campbell, Martin, Fabos; page 205)

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space:auto">-Channels that have no advertising so that you can watch a show/movie all the way through without any interruptions.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.75in;mso-add-space:auto; text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l1level1lfo2">E. DBS: Cable without Wires

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space: auto">-DBS stands for Direct Broadcast Satellite

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:1.5in;mso-add-space:auto">-DBS is a company that does not use cable wire. Instead they use satellite dishes at their customer’s homes that transit the signal. With the satellites, this does not require and cable hookups.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:1.5in;text-align:left;">Sources used for this section:

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:1.5in;text-align:left;">''1. Zworykin on the invention of tv'' (Web). (2011). Retrived from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W40OktedXik

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:1.5in;text-align:left;">2. Campbell, Martin, and Fabos (2013). Nedia and Culture: Mass Communication a Digital Age. Bedford St. Martin's: New York.

Group 2
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Technology and Convergence Change Viewing Habits

A.     Home Video: started in 1975 and gave users the ability to use a VHS (Video Home System) to tape-record television shows to be able to watch them later.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">In 1976 two companies, Disney and MCA (who is now NBC), Sued Sony stating that home video infringed on their copy rights. Sony ended up winning the case in 1979 because home video taping was considered personal use.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">As time went on VHS became obsolete and DVD's became the medium of use. The HD DVD format was in troduced by Toshiba. Once again, Sony was the leading company in video recording and introduced Bluray disks. Now Bluray dominates the market because Best Buy and Walmart, the leading sellers of dvd's, decided to not carry HD DVD's anymore.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">Now with DVR's (digital video recorders) available, time shifting happens. This is the process where the viewer records shows to watch them at a later time.

B.      The Third Screen: TV Converges with the Internet

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;">The third sceen is the computer screen. The computer now has the ability to give users another outlet for them to able to watch television and movies.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">YouTube for example is an online video sharing site. This site gives viewers access to user-made uploaded videos, music videos, and  classic TV episodes.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; text-align: center;">http://youtu.be/HttF5HVYtlQ

C.      Fourth Screens: Smartphones and Mobile Video

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">Examples of fourth screens are: smartphones, IPods, and IPads. These devices are changing the way viewers are watching television. The fourth screen is being used at the same time as the viewer is watching the TV. <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 48px;">Now cable providers like Comcast, Dish, and Time Warner are creating outlets for viewers to watch live television from their fourth screen. They took this jump because the fourth screen is portable and the viewer could watch a TV show anywhere.

Major Programming Trends

<span style="font-family:"Times","serif";mso-fareast-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family: Times">A. <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">TV Entertainment: Our Comic Culture

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">      In 1951 Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz began filming the iconic comedy series I Love Lucy and was the first television program to be fimed before a live audience.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;">      Kinescope was a process used while filming I Love Lucy. This process involved a film camera recording the live show with an off studio monitor. Most shows that used this process were unable to be salvaged.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family:Times">a. <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">Sketch Comedy: Was a key element in early variety TV shows. Vaudeville and stage performers were the first stars of this genre.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">A current example of this genre is Saturday Night Live which began in 1975.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; text-align: center;">http://youtu.be/uMNvLsN-Iro

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family:Times">b.        <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">Situation Comedy: Features a recurring cast and each episode has a situation that is complicated that confuses the cast then is resolved by the end of the episode.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">      Examples of this style of show are: I Love Lucy, 30 Rock, and The New Girl.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif";mso-fareast-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family: Times">c. <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">Domestic Comedy <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">:  The settings and characters are more important then the situations they face. These shows focus on personal or family problems.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">Examples of this style are: Modern Family, Happy Days, and Curb Your Enthusiasm.

<span style="font-family:"Times","serif";mso-fareast-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family: Times">B. <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">TV Entertainment: Our Dramatic Culture

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family:Times">C. <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">Anthology Drama:  Influenced by stage plays, this style brought live dramatic theater to a television audience.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">     Examples of this style are: Studio One (1948-1958), Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1955-1965), and Twilight Zone (1959-1964).

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">Anthology Drama did not last because of the depth of the stories, economic reasons, and political reasons. People that could afford TV sets could also afford tickets to a play. As the TV set became more affordable, the market changed and anthology dramas became less popular.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">      Miniseries: a TV show that ran over a two-day to two-week period, running on consecutive nights.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">Examples of this style are:  Rich Man, Poor Man (1976), Roots (1977), and American Horror Story (FX).

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family:Times">D. <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">Episodic Series: This style was first used in radio in 1929. In this style, main characters continue from week to week and the sets, locales, and technical crews remain with the program. There are two types of episodic series, chapter shows and serial programs.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;">      Chapter Shows: Have main characters confront problems and face a series of conflicts that then result in a resolution. This style focuses on the hopes and fears of the American viewers.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">Examples of this style are: The Big Bang Theory (2007- ) & CSI: Crime Scene Investigation (2000- ).

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;">      Serial Programs:  Are cheaper to produce then chapter shows; the story line continues from episode to episode. Soap Operas are the longest running programs in the history of television.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">Examples of this style:  As The World Turns (1956-2010) & General Hospital (1963- ).

<span style="font-family:"Times","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family:Times">E. <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">TV Information: Our Daily News Culture

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family:Times">a. <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">NBC News: Meet the Press (1947- ) is the oldest show on television. Daily nightly news did not start until February in 1948 and still continues today.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family:Times">b. <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">CBS News:  The CBS-TV News premiered in May 1948 and in 1956 became the first news program to be videotaped for reairing. Walter Cronkite was a news anchor that helped pave the idea that the Americans were mislead by the Vietnam War.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family:Times">c. <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">ABC News <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">:  ABC World News Tonight premiered in 1978 with four anchors; Franks Reynolds (Washington D.C.), Jennings (London), Walters (New York), and Max Robinson (Chicago). Robinson was the first black reporter to coanchor.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family:Times">              <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">Cable News Changes the Game:


 * <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">CNN (Cable News Network) was the first 24 hour cable TV news channel and premiered in 1980.       With the launch of CNN, competitors began popping up all over the world.  With 24 hour news, viewers do not have to wait for 5:30 or 6:30 P.M.
 * <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">      Examples of style are: MSNBC, CNBC, and EuroNews.

<span style="font-family:"Times","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family:Times">F. <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">Reality TV and Other Enduring Trends:

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">      The Tonight Show (1954- ):  a talk show that offered insight into celebrities and politicians.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">      Jeopardy! (1964 - ): a game show that used trivia about history and current events.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;">      Reality TV: Introduces the viewers to people that are more like us and less like celebrities. These shows are less expensive to produce then sitcoms. This genre was inspired by The Real World, which is MTV's longest running program (1992- ).

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">Other Examples of this style: Jersey Shore, Survivor, and Big Brother.

<span style="font-family:"Times","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family:Times">G. <span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">Public Television Struggles to Find Its Place:

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family:"Times","serif"">      Congress pass the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967. This act made the channel Corporation for Public (CPB) and later in 1969 Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). These channels were made for people that were not attracked to commercial networks. Most of the shows provided on these channels are educational.

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">Examples of shows on these channels:  Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood (1968-2001) and Barney & Friends (1991- ).

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">Sources:

<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: normal; margin-left: 48px;">
 * 1) <p class="MsoNormal" id="table" style="margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.5in;line-height:150%"> "Laughing baby." YouTube. YouTube, 09 07 2013. Web. 9 Jul 2013. <http://youtu.be/HttF5HVYtlQ>.
 * 2) <p class="MsoNormal" id="table" style="margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.5in;line-height:150%"> "The Best of 'SNL'S Gilly." YouTube. YouTube, 09 07 2013. Web. 09 Jul 2013. <http://youtu.be/uMNvLsN-Iro>.
 * 3) <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.5in;line-height:150%">Campbell, Martin, and Fabos (2013). Nedia and Culture: Mass Communication a Digital Age. Bedford St. Martin's: New York.

Group 3
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<p class="MsoNormal"> I.   Regulatory Challenges to Television and Cable ( Media and Culture,  pp. 218 – 225)

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left:0.75in;text-indent:-0.5in;">

<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0.5in;">A. Government Regulations Temporarily Restrict Network Control

<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:0.5in;text-indent:0.5in;">In about the middle of the twentieth century, cable TV began to attract more viewers than broadcast TV. Consequently, this drew some concerns from the U.S. government, which sought to prevent cable TV from becoming monopolized by only a select few, particularly the Big Three networks (ABC, NBC, and CBS). The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) decided to develop a diversity of new laws and regulations to be imposed onto the television industry in an effort to prevent the monopolizing effect from happening.

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:1.25in;text-indent:-0.25in;">1. PTAR

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:1.25in;">The first law to get enacted by the government was the Prime Time Access Rule (PTAR), which was legislated in April 1970. This law limited TV networks’ control of prime-time TV to 3 hours, rather than the 4 hours that was previously allowed. This was aimed to generate more local news and public-affairs programs. In the same year, the FCC formed the fin-syn, or Financial Interest and Syndication Rules. This new law banned TV networks from profiting by selling the right to broadcast programs to multiple TV stations without first going through broadcast networks. In 1975, the Department of Justice enacted a third policy, which imposed limits on the TV networks’ production of shows other than news.

<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0.5in;">B. Balancing Cable’s Growth against Broadcasters’ Interests

<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:0.5in;text-indent:0.5in;">In the early 1970’s, cable TV began to grow very rapidly. Cable TV, unlike broadcast TV, had the capabilities of having a multitude of channels as well as better reception, which was a couple of the primary reasons for its increasing popularity. However, in 1972, the FCC legislated two additional rules that would have enduring effects on cable TV.

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:1.25in;text-indent:-0.25in;">1. Must-Carry Rules

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.25in;">The FCC enacted this law in 1965 and later reaffirmed it in 1972. The must-carry rules obligated all cable TV providers to allot channels as well as carry all local TV broadcast networks. This rule helped created a more equal playing field, so to speak, for local TV networks, independent TV stations, and public TV channels.

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.25in;text-indent:-0.25in;">2. Access-Channel Mandates

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.25in;">Also, in 1972, the FCC enacted access-channel mandates, which required cable providers to fund TV channels that were committed to education, government, and the public. This created an opportunity for leased channels to be used by the public. Any citizen could purchase a time allotment on one of these leased channels and create their own TV programs.

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.25in;text-indent:-0.25in;">3. Cables Role: Electronic Publisher or Common Carrier?

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:1.25in;">Due to cable TV not being available when the Communications Act of 1934 was legislated, the cable industry’s position was uncertain. The cable TV industry wanted to be considered electronic publishers so that they would have more freedom and fewer restrictions when it came to the channels and other content. However, the FCC argued that cable TV was just a ''common carrier. ''Telephone companies are an example of a common carrier: they cannot choose the type of content that they carry, such as personal conversations. In the Midwest Video case in 1979, the U.S. Supreme Court allowed the cable companies to be considered “electronic publishers” and have the same freedoms that other media publishers enjoyed.

<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0.5in;">C. Franchising Frenzy

<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:0.5in;text-indent:0.5in;">Cable franchising became very intense in the late 1970’s through the early 1990’s. During this period, a state or city would tell cable companies what they wanted in reference to cable TV. The cable companies were then given the opportunity to bid, much like a construction contractor bids on a new project. Some of the subjects covered in a cable company bid were: schedules, channels, design, financial issues, subscription rates, and a franchise fee. Franchise fees were the annual funds that the cable company would pay the city or state in order to operate in that specific area. Consequently, this allowed for corruption. In order to deal with the corruption surrounding franchise fees, the government passed a federal cable policy act in 1984, which allowed the government to have more control over the franchise fees.

<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0.5in;">D. The Telecommunications Act of 1996

<p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:0.5in;text-indent:0.5in;">Through 1984 and 1996, the government had difficulty in keeping the cable industry following the same rules that the other media industries had to abide by – simply because the cable industry did not have a firm set of federal regulations. In order to prevent this issue from continuing, Congress passed the ''Telecommunications Act of 1996. ''This new law placed the cable industry under the same rules that applied to the radio and telephone industries.

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:0.75in;text-indent:-0.5in;">II. The Economics and Ownership of Television and Cable

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:0.75in;text-indent:-0.25in;">A. Production

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:0.75in;">The success of the TV industry is measured by the success of its TV programs. Making TV programs that will draw in large and faithful audiences requires a great amount of money. The cost of production is divided into two categories: above-the-line costs and below-the-line costs.

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1in;text-indent:-0.25in;">1. Below-the-Line vs. Above-the-Line

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1in;">Below-the-line costs account for about 40% of a TV program’s production budget. They include the technical production costs such as: equipment, cameras, sets, construction workers, costumes, lighting, CGI, special effects, among other items. Above-the-line costs account for approximately 60% of the production budget. These costs are associated with the talent needed for the TV program, such as: directors, writers, producers, editors, and actors.

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1in;text-indent:-0.25in;">2. Deficit Financing

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1in;">TV programs are funded through ''deficit financing. ''This type of financing initially causes production companies to lose money, but the production companies eventually turn a profit when the network begins reruns of the episodes of their TV program. Production companies lease their TV program to a TV network or cable channel for a license fee, which is less than the production costs. It takes about two years and about forty-four episodes in order for a production company to start making a profit.

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:0.75in;text-indent:-0.25in;">B. Distribution

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:0.75in;">There are many different ways that TV programs are purchased. Most cable companies rely on customer subscriptions to provide the funds needed for channel distribution. Customers also pay retransmission fees to broadcast networks to provide necessary funding for network channels and programming.

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1in;text-indent:-0.25in;">1. Affiliate Stations

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1in;">Affiliate stations are not owned by their associated TV networks. In order for major networks to have time on local TV stations, they sign short-term contracts. For example, a local affiliate station of Fox is WFFT-TV Channel 55 in Fort Wayne.

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1in;text-indent:-0.25in;">2. O & O’s

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1in;">O & O’s is a nickname for network owned and operated stations. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 eliminated a good amount of ownership restrictions, which enable a single owner to reach a wider audience nationwide.

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1in;text-indent:-0.25in;">3. Clearance Rules

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1in;">In the 1940’s, the FCC and the Department of Justice enacted the clearance rules, which gave local affiliate stations the responsibility of approving and choosing the kind of content shown on their channels.

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:0.75in;text-indent:-0.25in;">C. Syndication Keeps Shows Going and Going

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:0.75in;">Syndication is when TV stations or cable networks are given the exclusive right to air certain TV shows. It is also a vital element of distribution. TV programs that are up for syndication are bid on by executives from TV stations and cable companies at an annual meeting called the National Association of Television Program Executives (NAPTE). This is another way that TV stations and cable companies can acquire the exclusive rights to evergreens (popular old reruns, like I Love Lucy). Syndicated TV programs are most often aired during what is known as ''fringe time. ''Fringe time is TV programming that is aired right before prime-time in the evening (also known as early fringe). This same programming might also be aired immediately after a late-night talk show, such as The Tonight Show, or the local evening news.

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1in;text-indent:-0.25in;">1. Types of Syndication

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1in;">According to the textbook, there are two types of syndication – off-network syndication and ''first-run syndication. Off-network syndication, also known as reruns, takes place when a TV show is syndicated in packages and sold to multiple TV stations and markets to be used by local TV stations, cable companies, and online sites like Netflix''. An example of off-network syndication is the popular TV show ''Friends. ''The other type of syndication is first-run syndication. In first-run syndication, TV shows are made solely to be sold in syndication markets. A couple examples of this type of syndication are TV shows like Dr. Phil and ''The Jerry Springer Show. ''

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1in;text-indent:-0.25in;">2. Barter vs. Cash Deals

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin:0in0in0.0001pt1.25in;text-indent:-0.25in;line-height:normal;">

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left:1in;">The financial aspect of TV syndication is one of two deals – a cash deal or a ''barter deal. ''In a cash deal, whoever essentially has or bids the most money for a TV series will earn the exclusive rights to broadcast that TV series. On the other hand, a barter deal applies to TV shows that are either new or older TV programs that were not initially very successful. In a typical barter deal, no money is needed. A syndicator simply offers a TV series to a local TV station in exchanged for profits made through advertising.

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin:0in0in0.0001pt1.25in;text-indent:-0.25in;line-height:normal;">

<p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin:0in0in0.0001pt1.25in;text-indent:-0.25in;line-height:normal;">

Group 4
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left:1.25in;mso-add-space: auto"> <p align="left" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin:0in0in0.0001pt0.75in;text-indent:-0.25in;line-height:normal;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> D.     Measuring Television Viewing

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> a.        A.C Nielsen Market Research Company

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -This company is a major organization that counts the number of people watching TV shows (especially prime-time shows).

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -A.C. Nielson uses these numbers to determine the ratings of shows.This LINK takes you to the top ten ratings page of the most current Nielson ratings. Notice that you can use the arrow on this page to further break these ratings down by some of the basic demographics. These are examples of the top 10 programs, which most likely recieve the highest amounts of advertising money.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -In addition to finding the number of people watching specific shows, A.C. Nielson also provides information about the demographics of viewers.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                   -Demographics include: Race, gender, age, occupation, and educational background.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -T.V. stations, advertisers, cable companies, and networks use ratings and demographics information when determining appropriate TV programming.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> b.       Calculating Ratings and Shares

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -A rating estimates the number of households that are watching a show, out of a specified number of homes in a sample.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                   -For instance, A.C. Nielson may decide to analyze the TV shows being watched in 5,000 homes. Of the 5,000 homes, 1,000 are watching a specific show. Our rating is found by saying 1,000 out of 5,000 homes are watching this show, or 20% of the sample is watching the show. The rating for this show would then be considered 20%.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -A share is similar to a rating, but a share only counts the number of homes watching a show out of the number of homes with their TV on.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                   -This is different because the TV must be on for it to count towards the share; whereas, in a rating the TV can be on or off.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                   -In this case if we looked at 5,000 homes and only 4,000 had their TV on, then we would make our percentage out of the 4,000. (i.e. if 1,000 out of 4,000 were watching a specific show, then that show would have a share of 25%)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -Many times ratings/shares are expressed simply as a number and not a percentage. 20% would just be a rating of 20. 25% would be a share of 25.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> c.        Impact of Ratings and Shares on Programming

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -Ratings and shares are possibly the most important factors when determining a shows success and if the network will make money with the show.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -Networks attempt to make money from advertisers by providing shows that meet specific standards concerning ratings/share.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -Advertisers will compete to buy time during highly rated shows because they offer larger audiences. This also gives advertisers the opportunity to target specific demographic markets because the ratings usually include facts about which age or gender watches the different shows.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -When shows do not live up to expectations they are usually cancelled (as many as 9/10 shows each fall fail to get high enough ratings or do not successfully reach their target audience).

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -The only possible exception to the Ratings/Shares success meter is concerning Cable networks. These networks like FX and AMC make a lot of their money through subscriptions to their channels. This helps relieve some of the pressure to secure major advertising. Some shows on these channels are considered successful even if they don’t match the ratings numbers of prime-time networks.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> d.       Assessing Today’s Markets

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -Shows have a much lower standard today to be considered successful than ever before. In previous decades, a rating of 17 and a share of 28 would be considered successful. However, since the advent of cable, DVDs, the Internet, and other sources of programing, a show only needs to reach a rating of about 3 and a share of up to 10 to be successful.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -DVRs have forced Nielson to include newer categories for determining ratings. They include:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                   -Live: which is simply watching the show live on TV

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                   -Live plus 24 hours: watching a recorded show within one day of air time.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                   -Live plus 7 days: watching a recorded show within one week

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                   -Some shows are actually getting higher ratings on the Live+24 hours, and Live+7days categories as opposed to the Live category. This suggests a major change in the way people prefer their programming.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -Another complication for the Nielson ratings has been the introduction of Internet options for watching shows. Nielson is attempting to use special tracking software in order to count the viewers using these mobile devices (laptops, phones, IPads).

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -YouTube is the biggest new player in the small-screen world. YouTube has contracted several online producers to create niche channels..

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                   -YouTube gives its content produces up to $5 million and then keeps ad money until the advance has been paid off. After that, the money is split between the producer and YouTube.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                   -Top producers on YouTube include: Madonna, Shaq, and Amy Poehler.This is the most viewed YouTube video of all time.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                   -Advertising online is sold differently than on TV. Rather than buying commercial time, advertisers pay a ‘Cost per Mille’ or CPM Rate.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                                     -CPM Rate is the amount paid per 1000 impressions.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                                            -An impression is a single ad shown to a person visiting a site.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                                           -If an Advertiser paid a CPM rate of $1, then it would have to pay $10 for 10,000 ad displays. Many popular sites can charge between $10-20 CPM rate; smaller sites can charge 10-20 cents.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> E.      The Major Programming Corporations

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -Because of deregulation in the 1980s, many companies consolidated to lower their costs and broaden their market shares. The strategy of owning several networks and using these networks to ‘spread’ their costs has created and oligopoly, in which a handful of companies control todays programming.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -The Telecommunications Act of 1996 was a crucial step in providing cable corporations with the opportunity to merge. Some view this act as being the cause of increased rates and decreased diversity in our media.This Link provides an interesting article which criticizes the Telecommunications Act of 1996.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> a.        The Major Broadcast Networks

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -With the decline of traditional networks, several companies have expanded their operations by buying out popular cable channels. NBC, for example, now operates MSNBC, CNBC, and Bravo. This strategy has helped networks control the competitive aspect of cable vs traditional networks.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -Even though viewership is not what it used to be, traditional networks still maintain the highest ratings. The top networks in 2011-2012 were CBS, Fox, ABC, NBC, Univision, and the CW.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> b.       Major Cable and DBS Companies

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -Cable has become a major investment for providing access to households with high-bandwidth wires. Today there are about 7,100 U.S. cable systems.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -Large corporations that own several cable systems are called multiple-system operators (MSOs). These companies bought out thousands of systems since the 1990s.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -Multichannel Video Programming Distributors (MVPDs) are the major corporations in cable systems today (i.e. Comcast, Time Warner Cable). The top ten MVPDs control about 70% of the households.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">                   -MVPDs include Direct-Broadcast Satellite companies like DirecTV and DISH Network.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> c.        The Effects of Consolidation

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -The monopolization created by these merging companies is seen as a threat to the circulation of diverse media that may not be as profitable for the corporation. Many people fear that these MVPDs will begin to provide narrower views and limit the amount of ideas and controversial views they show.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -Even though companies suggest that consolidation is necessary to keep the businesses going, the sometimes hostile disagreements between these corporations ends up punishing the viewers by limiting or cancelling different programs during negotiations.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> F.       Alternative Voices

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> a.        Municipally Owned Cable Systems

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -Some of the smaller cities in the U.S. have begun to fight back against the major cable corporations. These municipally owned cable systems are publicly owned, non-profit, and usually run by electric utilities. They serve about 14% of the population and have created the opportunity for more municipal utilities to run communication services.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">      -Cities and towns argue that the only way corporate cable companies will be able to compete with the municipal services is by providing better quality, customer service, fair rates and appreciation of the residents in the smaller towns.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> Television, Cable, and Democracy 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:13.0pt; margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> A. Television: The reigning storyteller

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt">      - Television has been envisioned as a way to provide diverse, specific, and flexible programming to the nation. This promise was an ideal way to present mass entertainment and information for people to talk about with friends, family, and coworkers. However, the commercialization of TV seems to seek profits over democracy.

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt">      -Cable has been attempting to create a new approach to programming and shows but falls short of displaying new/original ideas regularly. Many of the programs are becoming simple regurgitations of previously used network shows.

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:9.0pt;text-indent:-9.0pt">      -Even though the major cable corporations are pursuing profits over quality, diverse, and original programs, TV still offers the best and most convenient opportunity for storytelling. TV shows provide families, friends, and coworkers with the chance to bond by following the current storylines from news, sports, dramas, and sitcoms.

<p class="MsoNormal">             References:

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